Margaret Clark – Educational Psychology

This is me and my parents in Ireland. I’ve lived in a variety of states but currently live in Ohio.

On campus, I enjoy movie nights with my friends and sitting near the fireplace in Lowry.

Both of my parents were teachers and I’m interested in psychology so educational psychology is a good intersection of interests.

I am interested in bilingual individuals’ access to resources or how they are not accommodated in schools. I would be looking at young children when they first enter school and the challenges they face, especially if a different language is spoken at home. To accomplish this, I would interview/give surveys to teachers, students, and parents to understand their experiences. I have worked with ESL people before and understand how inaccessible the U.S. can be for individuals who do not speak English.

Another idea is looking at disciplinary effects on individuals due to gendered dress codes and unequal enforcement of polices. Middle and high school girls are often taken out of class because their clothes and bodies are considered distractions to others, more specifically boys. Simultaneously, the fashion and make up industries push ideas of young girls being hypersexualized. I would look at attendance records and policies. I would also survey middle and high schools about their opinions on dress codes. Private and public schools and uniformed and non-uniformed schools would be investigated. I remember the dress code fight at my high school.

Engel de Abreu, P. M., Cruz-Santos, A., Tourinho, C. J., Martin, R., & Bialystok, E. (2012). Bilingualism enriches the poor: Enhanced cognitive control in low-income minority children. Psychological science, 23(11), 1364-71.

Whiteside, K. E., Gooch, D., & Norbury, C. F. (2016). English Language Proficiency and Early School Attainment Among Children Learning English as an Additional Language. Child development, 88(3), 812-827.

For my research proposal, I would like to recreate Gastic’s (2011) work which concluded that metal detectors were negatively correlated with feeling safe. He used data from 1994, which is before many school famous shootings like Columbine or Sandy Hook. My proposal would be replicate this with current high school students. While the researchers wanted to an objective sample to examine the correlation between metal detectors and students’ feelings of safety, I argue that the violent events shape and change individuals’ opinions about security measures and, therefore, cannot be excluded from the discussion. Technology is also far more advanced than in 1994. Metal detectors are in more schools now and walk-through detectors have been replaced with the full body scanners. The security cultural is vastly different from 1994 and, therefore, should be investigated.

American Psychological Association. (2018). Stress in America Survey Generation Z. American Psychological Association.

The responses of 3,458 adults (22+ years old) were compared to 531 Gen Z (15-21). Participants of this online survey were asked about their demographics as well as questions about their stress levels. Roughly 73% of Generation Z individuals were significantly stressed about the possibility of a mass or school shooting. 22% also report that recent secure efforts have increased their stress level rather than alleviate it. Generation Z individuals were between 7 and 14% more concerned by issues (e.g. high suicide rates, mass shootings, climate change, sexual harassment allegations, etc.) than other generations. 27% rate their own mental health as “poor” or “fair,” compared to 7% of Baby Boomers (54-72 years old). The APA provides a clear picture of the stressful situation the next generation finds themselves in and shows how widespread the fear is.

Bachman, R., Randolph, A., & Brown, B. L. (2011). Predicting perceptions of fear at school and going to and from school for African American and White students: The effects of school security measures. Youth & Society, 43(2), 705–726. https://doi.org/10.1177/0044118X10366674

Bachman, Randolph, & Brown (2011) found that 19% of students report feeling fearful at school. White and Black students differed on fear levels going and coming from school, 11 and 18% respectively. 69% of students said there were guards at their school. White students also reported feeling fear at the implementation of guards and if they attended urban schools. African American students, on the other hand, reported being more afraid in suburban and rural areas on the 2005 School Crime Supplement of the National Crime Victimization Survey. Researchers explained that it could be caused by residential segregation. Overall, the security measures, in particular the guards and the metal detectors, made students feel more unsafe. Prior victimizations and bullying exacerbated this fear. This study substantiates Gastic’s work on feeling more unsafe because of metal detectors.

Bhatt, R., & Davis, T. (2018). The impact of random metal detector searches on contraband possession and feelings of safety at school. Educational Policy, 32(4), 569–597. https://doi.org/10.1177/0895904816673735

Bhatt and Davis (2018) compared two Florida school districts which had differing metal detector policies. The Miami-Dade district implemented random searches in 1993, whereas Broward has no metal detectors. This system of random selection utilizes Becker’s theory of deviance which is that there will be low amounts of crime if the odds of getting caught are too high. Researchers found that “random search program was associated with fewer reports of students bringing weapons to school and drugs being sold on campus” (Bhatt & Davis 2018, p. 591). However, there was little support of the hypothesis that students would report feeling safer which demonstrates the conflicting conclusions within the research. This article acknowledges that school violence does not have to be as drastic as a school shooting to impact a student’s learning. School fights or access to illegal substances can distract from the ability to focus on work.

Bowers, P. (2018, June 28). School metal detectors would cost $98 million a year in S.C., but some say they’re worth it. Retrieved from https://www.postandcourier.com/news/school-metal-detectors-would-cost-million-a-year-in-s/article_6fdbbad6-0ffc-11e8-a077-5ffd5919b42f.html

The cost of metal detectors in schools can based off each school’s budgets, but they are around $4,000. Wand (handheld) metal detectors cost roughly $100. Some schools are also adding x-ray machines, visitor sign-in, and ID badges (Bowers 2018). Schools would also need to hire security officers to conduct the searches. Looking at the statewide initiative in South Carolina, one can see the financial factor that school administrations must consider: “Installing metal detectors at every South Carolina public school would cost $14.4 million up front, plus up to $98.3 million each year to place staff at security checkpoints” (Bowers 2018). This article provides the background for the cost of security measures and the perspective that says they are necessary.

Bryson, S. L., & Childs, K. K. (2018). Racial and ethnic differences in the relationship between school climate and disorder. School Psychology Review, 47(3), 258–274. https://doi.org/10.17105/SPR-2018-0016.V47-3

In 2015, five schools responded to surveys about school climate and school disorder. Researcher found that the 415 students of color respondents reported experiencing school climate differently because of how teachers and society treat them. Within society, people of color frequently report receiving disproportionate punishment compared to their white peers. If the students do not feel welcomed or connected to their school, their academic achievement and attendance will suffer. This source establishes that school climate is perceived differently for people of color: “On average, African American high school students
reported more positive perceptions of student connectedness,
clarity and fairness of rules, student–teacher relationships,
and respect for differences compared to White and Hispanic
high school students” (Bryson and Childs 2018, pp. 269). This creates a foundation which is important for the later research that examines students of color’s feelings about security measures.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (1993). Violence-related attitudes and behaviors of high school students—New York City, 1992. JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Association, 270(17), 2032. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.1993.03510170022008

1,399 New York students were surveyed in 1992. They reported frequently carrying weapons and being threatened with violence, both on and off school grounds. Students were from high schools with and without metal detectors, three and twelve respectively. The metal detectors did reduce the number of weapons inside and going to and from school, by 5.8-7.5%. However, students were not deterred outside of school. Metal detector students were just as likely as non-metal detector students to carry weapons (21.6 vs. 21.2%). Metal detectors also did not reduce the number of threats or physical fights. While metal detectors are the easy and logical answer from an objective standpoint, their effectiveness is debatable. This source provides evidence for why metal detectors are not needed.

Center for Homeland Defense and Security. (2019, January 02). K-12 School Shooting Database: Incidents by Year. Retrieved from https://www.chds.us/ssdb/incidents-by-year/

Daily, S. M., Mann, M. J., Kristjansson, A. L., Smith, M. L., & Zullig, K. J. (2019). School climate and academic achievement in middle and high school students. Journal of School Health, 89(3), 173–180. https://doi.org/10.1111/josh.12726

Researchers used data from five schools to conclude that school climate has a direct effect on 1,358 middle and high school students’ academic success. Students self-reported their final grades for the previous year’s math and English courses then were asked to answer questions from the School Climate Measure. This connection establishes that positive school climate can drastically improve students’ school performance: it “[explained]… 6% and 17% of the variance in achievement” (Daily et al. 2019, pp. 177). School achievements affect students later in life as well. Therefore, measures should be taken to preserve and strengthen positive school climate.

Davis, J. R., & Warner, N. (2018). Schools matter: The positive relationship between New York City high schools’ student academic progress and school climate. Urban Education, 53(8), 959–980. https://doi.org/10.1177/0042085915613544

This study provides support and nuance to Daily et al.’s (2019) work. Their scope is bigger; they utilized survey data from 263 New York schools. 9-12^th grade students, their parents, and teachers answered questions about safety and respect, communication, engagement, and academic expectations. All these factors work together to create a school climate. I appreciate that the researchers did not solely focus on safety as being equivalent to climate. The climate was then compared to the students’ school progress reports, which outlined the number of credits accumulated and score on the state-wide Regents exam, to monitor academic achievement. In some cases, school climate was a better predictor of academic success compared to student background (e.g. low socioeconomic status). This research validates previous work on the positive correlations between school climate and student success.

Gastic, B. (2011). Metal detectors and feeling safe at school. Education and Urban Society, 43(4), 486-498. doi:10.1177/0013124510380717

Gastic (2011:486) used 7,618 7-12^th grade student surveys from the 1994 and 1996 National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (Add Health) and found “metal detectors are negatively correlated with students’ sense of safety at school.” They also concluded that student safety reports differed for urban vs. rural students. Rural student reports of feeling unsafe were 13% higher than for urban students. However, some famous gun violence incidents, like Columbine, Virginia Tech, and Sandy Hook, had not happened in 1994. The researcher wanted to an objective sample to examine the correlation between metal detectors and students’ feelings of safety. However, nothing exists in a vacuum. Witnessing first- or second-hand violent events shape and change individuals’ opinions about security measures and, therefore, cannot be separated from the discussion. Technology is also far more advanced than in 1994. Metal detectors are in more schools now and walk-through detectors have been replaced with the full body scanners. The public’s opinion also changes with time.

Gastic, B., & Johnson, D. (2014). Disproportionality in Daily Metal Detector Student Searches in U.S. Public Schools. Journal of School Violence,14(3), 299-315. doi:10.1080/15388220.2014.924074

Gastic and Johnson (2014) utilized the 2007−2008 the School Survey on Crime and Safety of the National Center for Education Statistics. Gastic and Johnson (2014:299) found disproportionality in daily metal detector searches and that “majority-minority high-violence schools were significantly more likely to conduct daily metal detector searches than other high-violence public schools.” Students of color can feel more isolated and distanced from their communities by the constant scrutiny. This research focuses on the feeling of safety, perceived risk, and the presence of racial stereotypes. Of the 2,560 responses, only 1% of the public schools had daily metal detector searches in 2008. For majority-minority schools, researchers found, “the odds of daily metal detector searches… are 6.62 times greater” (Gastic and Johnson 2014, pp. 307-308). It is critical to remember that people of color experience the world differently and increased security can lead to increased incidents of students being criminalized and systematically targeted.

Hankin, A., Hertz, M., & Simon, T. (2011). Impacts of metal detector use in schools: Insights from 15 years of research*. Journal of School Health, 81(2), 100–106. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1746-1561.2010.00566.x

Hankin, Hertz, & Simon (2011) used metanalysis to examine seven studies about metal detectors in school. The studies were focused on perceptions associated with metal detectors and violent experiences or behaviors. Gastic (2011) found that, as previously stated, metal detectors made students feel more unsafe by reminding them of the dangers they might face. Mayer and Leone (1999) substantiated these findings that increased security measures also increased students’ perceptions of school disorder. While Schreck, Miller, & Gibson (2003) saw no association between metal detectors and student’s risk of theft or physical assault, half of the students (Brown 2005) and administrators (Garcia 2003) surveyed thought that they were effective in reducing violence. Ginsberg and Loffredo (1993) state that schools with metal detectors were less likely to carry a weapon in New York schools (7.8% vs. 13.6%). This metanalysis demonstrates the wide range of previous research as well as the contradicting conclusions. Therefore, the subject needs further investigation which is what my study proposes.

Murtonen, K., Suomalainen, L., Haravuori, H., & Marttunen, M. (2012). Adolescents’ experiences of psychosocial support after traumatisation [sic] in a school shooting: School shooting recovery study. Child and Adolescent Mental Health, 17(1), 23–30. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-3588.2011.00612.x

While this study is Finnish, it provides evidence for the lasting effects violence has on the students and the community. Survivors and witnesses to the acts of violence are often diagnosed with acute stress disorder or post-traumatic stress disorder. After the Jokela High school shooting in 2007, two psychologists, a school social worker, school nurse, adolescent psychiatrist, psychotherapist, and art therapist were all hired to help the students process their trauma. Of the students effected, 231 responded to a survey for follow-up four months after the event. Participants were asked about their level of trauma exposure using the Impact of Event Scale, if crisis support offered, accepted, and perceived as helpful. Almost three-fourths of the high exposure individuals reported appreciating support from family, friends, and professionals. The discipline of psychology offers support to deal with trauma, this research serves as a reminder that prevention is critical.

National School Climate Center. (2007). Our Approach. Retrieved March 23, 2019, from https://www.schoolclimate.org/about/our-approach/what-is-school-climate

The National School Climate Center School defines climate as “the quality and character of school life which is based on patterns of students, parents, and school personnel’s experience.” Definitions are important for those unfamiliar with the previous research or context. I appreciate that this one includes people beyond the students because, while the students are at the core of schools, their actions are within the academic structure created and maintained by parents, teachers, and administration.

Novotney, A. (2018, September). What happens to the survivors. Monitor on Psychology, 49(8),36.

This article describes the long- and short-term psychological effects on survivors of gun violence: “28 percent of people who have witnessed a mass shooting develop post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and about a third develop acute stress disorder” (Novotney 2018, pp. 1). It is important to remember why security measures need to be taken. No one should witness such violence. Novotney also offer suggestions about how the counselors can better support survivors. For example, promoting memorial events for closure and family gatherings for support. He also recommends that leaders within the community have trauma training to better understand how to help others process their trauma. Novotney also substantiates Wilson (2014) which found that individuals with greater exposure to mass shootings had more symptoms of posttraumatic stress symptoms than those who did not.

Perumean-Chaney, S. E., & Sutton, L. M. (2012). Students and Perceived School Safety: The Impact of School Security Measures. American Journal of Criminal Justice,38(4), 570-588. doi:10.1007/s12103-012-9182-2

Perumean-Chaney and Sutton (2012) used the 1994 and 1996 National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (AddHealth) and found that “Students who were male, White, had higher GPAs, and reported feeling safe in their neighborhood were more likely to report feeling safe” unlike their classmates. Individuals “who experienced prior victimizations, had larger class sizes, and who attended schools that had disorder problems were more likely to report not feeling safe at school” (Perumean-Chaney and Sutton, 2012, p.570). Researchers acknowledge that the fear of violence can stem from individual and environmental factors. Metal detectors work based off the theory that the security measures will quickly catch offenders so there is no point in trying.

Schreck, C. J., Miller, J. M., & Gibson, C. L. (2003). Trouble in the school yard: A study of the risk factors of victimization at school. Crime & Delinquency, 49(3), 460–484. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011128703049003006

Researchers utilized the 1993 National Household and Education Survey’s School Safety and Discipline component to examine the effectiveness of “target hardening” safety strategies. Target hardening strategies refer to making it more difficult for offenders to find victims by preventing certain situations. For example, students are less likely to be bullied if the teacher is vigilant and present vs. if the victim is defenseless. Similarly, if there are security officers and metal detectors, the offender’s aim to harm people has more obstacles and is, therefore, more difficult. However, the results did not indicate that this is true: “School-implemented target-hardening strategies had no significant relationship with individual victimization” (Schreck, Miller, & Gibson 2003, pp. 469). This article provides more examples of metal detectors and security officers not being enough of a deterrent.

Sloan, I. H., Rozensky, R. H., Kaplan, L., & Saunders, S. M. (1994). A shooting incident in an elementary school: Effects of worker stress on public safety, mental health, and medical personnel. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 7(4), 565–574. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02103007

In 1991, the Hubbard Woods School community experienced a shooting that injured five and killed one student. Six months after the violent event, 140 police, fire, medical, and mental health personnel responded to the follow-up questionnaire. Participants were ranked on the Impact of Event Scale which highlighted any intrusive thoughts or avoidant behavior related to the incident. Overall, participants reported declining event impact as more time passes.

While these personnel are trained for traumatic events and have comprehensive debriefing sessions, they were still affected by the experience. Violent incidents effect entire communities. For every day people, this kind of event can change their opinion about security prevention methods and having lasting impacts on their health.

Tanner-Smith, E. E., & Fisher, B. W. (2016). Visible school security measures and student academic performance, attendance, and postsecondary aspirations. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 45(1), 195–210. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-015-0265-5

Previous research suggested that visible security measures made students feel more unsafe and preform worse academically because they felt criminalized. Researchers surveyed middle and high school students to learn about their attendance, academic performance, and postsecondary aspirations and found that visible security measures were not related to students’ academic success. Visible measures are defined as security personnel, cameras, and/or metal detectors. Researchers did note a connection between the combined utilization of visible methods and schools with low attendance, low future education aspirations, and a large number of students who received free/reduced lunches. This study demonstrates the conflicting results in research.

Literature Review

School Climate

The National School Climate Center School defines climate as “the quality and character of school life which is based on patterns of students, parents, and school personnel’s experience.” While the students are at the core of schools, their actions are within the academic structure created and maintained by parents, teachers, and administration. How individuals perceive a space’s climate can change their opinion and their ability to thrive. Daily, Mann, Kristjansson, Smith, & Zullig, (2019) used data from five schools to conclude that school climate has a direct effect on 1,358 middle and high school students’ academic success. Students self-reported their final grades for the previous year’s math and English courses then were asked to answer questions from the School Climate Measure. This connection establishes that positive school climate can drastically improve students’ school performance: it “[explained]… 6% and 17% of the variance in achievement” (Daily et al. 2019, pp. 177). School achievements affect students later in life as well. Therefore, measures should be taken to preserve and strengthen positive school climate. Davis & Warner (2018) provides support and nuance to Daily et al.’s (2019) work. Their scope is bigger; they utilized survey data from 263 New York schools. 9-12^th grade students, their parents, and teachers answered questions about safety and respect, communication, engagement, and academic expectations. The researchers did not solely focus on safety as being equivalent to climate; instead, all these factors work together to create a school climate. The climate was then compared to the students’ school progress reports, which outlined the number of credits accumulated and score on the state-wide Regents exam, to monitor academic achievement. In some cases, school climate was a better predictor of academic success compared to student background (e.g. low socioeconomic status). This research validates previous work on the positive correlations between school climate and student success.

Recent Events of School Shooting

In 2018, there were 97 school (K-12) shootings. This was a sharp increase from the previous year that had 44 incidents and even more shocking compared to data from 1976 when there were only 11 incidents (Center for Homeland Defense and Security 2019). Students have started expressing increased concern about their safety. The responses of 3,458 adults (22+-year-olds) were compared to 531 Gen Z (15-21-year-olds). Participants of this online survey were asked about their demographics as well as questions about their stress levels. Roughly 73% of Generation Z individuals were significantly stressed about the possibility of a mass or school shooting. 22% also report that recent secure efforts have increased their stress level rather than alleviate it. Generation Z individuals were between 7 and 14% more concerned by issues (e.g. high suicide rates, mass shootings, climate change, sexual harassment allegations, etc.) than other generations. 27% rate their own mental health as “poor” or “fair,” compared to 7% of Baby Boomers (54-72 years old). The APA provides a clear picture of the stressful situation the next generation finds themselves in and shows how widespread the fear is.

Because of student, parent, staff, and faculty fear, various security measures have been proposed to increase the feeling of safety and decrease the potential for another traumatic event. Metal detectors are often suggested to catch weapons before they enter classrooms. The cost of metal detectors in schools can based off each school’s budgets, but they are around $4,000. Wand (handheld) metal detectors cost roughly $100. Some schools are also adding x-ray machines, visitor sign-in, and ID badges (Bowers 2018). However, the cost does not stop there. Schools would also need to hire security officers to conduct the searches. Looking at the statewide initiative in South Carolina, one can see the financial factor that school administrations must consider: “Installing metal detectors at every South Carolina public school would cost $14.4 million up front, plus up to $98.3 million each year to place staff at security checkpoints” (Bowers 2018). Proponents of metal detectors say the cost is worth it if it prevents future attacks and makes students feel safer.

After effects on students. In 1991, the Hubbard Woods School community experienced a shooting that injured five and killed one student. Six months after the violent event, 140 police, fire, medical, and mental health personnel responded to the follow-up questionnaire. Participants were ranked on the Impact of Event Scale which highlighted any intrusive thoughts or avoidant behavior related to the incident. Overall, participants reported declining event impact as more time passes. While these personnel are trained for traumatic events and have comprehensive debriefing sessions, they were still affected by the experience. Violent incidents effect entire communities. For everyday people, this kind of event can change their opinion about security prevention methods and having lasting impacts on their health.

While Murtonen, Suomalainen, Haravuori, & Marttunen’s (2012) study is Finnish, it provides evidence for the lasting effects violence has on the students and the community. Survivors and witnesses to the acts of violence are often diagnosed with acute stress disorder or post-traumatic stress disorder. After the Jokela High school shooting in 2007, two psychologists, a school social worker, school nurse, adolescent psychiatrist, psychotherapist, and art therapist were all hired to help the students process their trauma. Of the students effected, 231 responded to a survey for follow-up four months after the event. Participants were asked about their level of trauma exposure using the Impact of Event Scale, if crisis support offered, accepted, and perceived as helpful. Almost three-fourths of the high exposure individuals reported appreciating support from family, friends, and professionals. The discipline of psychology offers support to deal with trauma, this research serves as a reminder that prevention is critical. Experiencing such violence has a life-long effect on individuals and their communities.

Novotney (2018) supports Murtonen, Suomalainen, Haravuori, & Marttunen’s (2012) work and describes the long- and short-term psychological effects on survivors of gun violence: “28 percent of people who have witnessed a mass shooting develop post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and about a third develop acute stress disorder” (pp. 1). It is important to remember why security measures need to be taken. No one should witness such violence. Novotney also offer suggestions about how the counselors can better support survivors. For example, promoting memorial events for closure and family gatherings for support. He also recommends that leaders within the community have trauma training to better understand how to help others process their trauma. Novotney also substantiates Wilson (2014) which found that individuals with greater exposure to mass shootings had more symptoms of posttraumatic stress symptoms than those who did not.

School Safety Measures

Feeling safe at school. While security measures are necessary, they can have unintended consequences like making students feel more unsafe at school. Bhatt and Davis (2018) compared two Florida school districts which had differing metal detector policies. The Miami-Dade district implemented random searches in 1993, whereas Broward has no metal detectors. This system of random selection utilizes Becker’s theory of deviance which is that there will be low amounts of crime if the odds of getting caught are too high. Researchers found that “random search program was associated with fewer reports of students bringing weapons to school and drugs being sold on campus” (Bhatt & Davis 2018, p. 591). However, there was little support of the hypothesis that students would report feeling safer which demonstrates the conflicting conclusions within the research. This study acknowledges that school violence does not have to be as drastic as a school shooting to impact a student’s learning. School fights or access to illegal substances can distract from the ability to focus on work.

Perumean-Chaney and Sutton (2012) used the 1994 and 1996 National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (AddHealth) and found that “Students who were male, White, had higher GPAs, and reported feeling safe in their neighborhood were more likely to report feeling safe” unlike their classmates. Individuals “who experienced prior victimizations, had larger class sizes, and who attended schools that had disorder problems were more likely to report not feeling safe at school” (Perumean-Chaney and Sutton, 2012, p.570). The researchers acknowledge that the fear of violence can stem from individual and environmental factors. Metal detectors work based off the theory that the security measures will quickly catch offenders so there is no point in trying.

Schreck, Miller, & Gibson (2003) utilized the 1993 National Household and Education Survey’s School Safety and Discipline component to examine the effectiveness of “target hardening” safety strategies. Target hardening strategies refer to making it more difficult for offenders to find victims by preventing certain situations. For example, students are less likely to be bullied if the teacher is vigilant and present vs. if the victim is defenseless. Similarly, if there are security officers and metal detectors, the offender’s aim to harm people has more obstacles and is, therefore, more difficult. However, the results did not indicate that this is true: “School-implemented target-hardening strategies had no significant relationship with individual victimization” (Schreck, Miller, & Gibson 2003, pp. 469). This study provides more examples of metal detectors and security officers not being enough of a deterrent.

Carrying weapons. If students feel unsafe, they will adopt ways to defend themselves such as carrying weapons. 1,399 New York students were surveyed in 1992. They reported frequently carrying weapons and being threatened with violence, both on and off school grounds. Students were from high schools with and without metal detectors, three and twelve respectively. The metal detectors did reduce the number of weapons inside and going to and from school, by 5.8-7.5%. However, students were not deterred outside of school. Metal detector students were just as likely as non-metal detector students to carry weapons (21.6 vs. 21.2%). Metal detectors also did not reduce the number of threats or physical fights. While metal detectors are the easy and logical answer from an objective standpoint, their effectiveness is debatable. This source provides evidence for why metal detectors are not needed.

Skipping school. Previous research suggested that visible security measures made students feel more unsafe and perform worse academically because they felt criminalized. Tanner-Smith & Fisher (2016) surveyed middle and high school students to learn about their attendance, academic performance, and postsecondary aspirations and found that visible security measures were not related to students’ academic success. Visible measures are defined as security personnel, cameras, and/or metal detectors. Researchers did note a connection between the combined utilization of visible methods and schools with low attendance, low future education aspirations, and a large number of students who received free/reduced lunches. This study demonstrates the conflicting results in research.

Students of color. In 2015, five schools responded to surveys about school climate and school disorder. Researcher found that the 415 students of color respondents reported experiencing school climate differently because of how teachers and society treat them. Within society, people of color frequently report receiving disproportionate punishment compared to their white peers. If the students do not feel welcomed or connected to their school, their academic achievement and attendance will suffer. This source establishes that school climate is perceived differently for people of color: “On average, African American high school students
reported more positive perceptions of student connectedness, clarity and fairness of rules, student–teacher relationships, and respect for differences compared to White and Hispanic high school students” (Bryson and Childs 2018, pp. 269). This creates a foundation which is important for the later research that examines students of color’s feelings about security measures.

Changing in attitudes over time

Guns laws within states. Four of the most well-known school and gun related incidents were Columbine, Virginia Tech., Sandy Hook, and Stoneman Douglass; all of which happened in the last decade. In 1999, two students killed 13 people and injured 21 others. In 2007, a student killing 32 and wounded 23 people. In 2012, a man killed 27 people; 20 who were between the ages of six and seven. In 2018, 17 students were killed and 17 were injured when a man stormed a high school. This incident surpassed Columbine in terms of deaths and became a louder call for gun reform.

Colorado has notoriously few gun restrictions which is shocking given the precedence set by the Columbine massacre. The public was reminded of this in 2012 Aurora movie theater shooting where 12 people were killed and many more injured.

My study will utilize this states and towns to compare if individuals more directly affected by gun violence have difference opinions on school safety measures, specifically metal detectors.

Current Study

I will replicate Gastic’s (2011) work, which concluded that metal detectors were negatively correlated with feeling safe, with high school and college students in 2019. He used data from 1994, which is before many school famous shootings like Columbine or Sandy Hook. In 2018, CNN reported that the U.S. is 57 times more likely to have a school shooting compared to other nations combined. As of March 2019, there have already been 29 gunfire incidents on school grounds. While the researcher wanted to an objective sample to examine the correlation between metal detectors and students’ feelings of safety, I argue that the violent events shape and change individuals’ opinions about security measures and, therefore, cannot be excluded from the discussion. Technology is also far more advanced than in 1994. Metal detectors are in more schools now and walk-through detectors have been replaced with the full body scanners. The security cultural is vastly different from 1994 and, therefore, should be investigated. Therefore, this study will provide an updated student perspective on school safety measures in light of current events. All high school and college students will be surveyed and then separated based off their geographic locations and their proximity to past school shooting events. I hypothesis that students more directly affected by previous gun violence incidents will be less afraid of metal detectors and will feel more safe with their implementation.

I.S. Symposium

I attended the Body Image session which was very thought-provoking. The first presenter examined people’s self-reported diet habits to see trends of individuals who identified and practiced vegetarianism. Her findings were significant and interesting, but it was not accessible to non-academic individuals. I attended the session with my parents and they were confused because she presented and assumed a lot of knowledge from her audience. The second presenter discussed IAT and tattoo stigma. She also wanted to see if there was any perceived entitativity or SDO about tattooed individuals. Her presentation was easier for the general public to understand, but she spoke a little too fast at points. It was a good example of replication studies and their importance. The last presenter had data from Wooster and an Oklahoma university which is rare but speaks well for the generalizability of her research. She asked her participants to fill out a survey about intentional eating and their body satisfaction.